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Paragraph Summary Questions
26. The passage given below is followed by four summaries. Choose the option that best captures the authorâs position.
Production and legitimation of scientific knowledge can be approached from a number of perspectives. To study knowledge production from the sociology of professions perspective would mean a focus on the institutionalization of a body of knowledge. The professions-approach informed earlier research on managerial occupation, business schools and management knowledge. It however tends to reify institutional power structures in its understanding of the links between knowledge and authority. Knowledge production is restricted in the perspective to the selected members of the professional community, most notably to the university faculties and professional colleges. Power is understood as a negative mechanism, which prevents the non-professional actors from offering their ideas and information as legitimate knowledge.
A. Professions-approach aims at the institutionalization of knowledge but restricts knowledge production as a function of a select few.
B. The study of knowledge production can be done through many perspectives.
C. Professions-approach focuses on the creation of institutions of higher education and disciplines to promote knowledge production.
D. The professions-approach has been one of the most relied upon perspective in the study of management knowledge production.
Solution with Explanation
Correct Answer:A
Detailed explanation by Wordpandit:This could seem like a difficult question. However after reading the question, read the passage a second time, and it will look simpler then.
The gist of the passage is that, one of the perspectives to approach scientific knowledge is the âprofessions-approachâ. It favours the institutionalization of a body of knowledge, which provides those institutes power and authority. As it favours the production of knowledge by âselected members of the professional communityâ, non-professional people from that area do not get the chance to offer their ideas as legitimate knowledge.
The only option that captures this gist of the passage is Option A.
Word 1: Legitimation
Context:
"Production and legitimation of scientific knowledge can be approached from a number of perspectives."
Explanatory Paragraph:
Legitimation refers to the process by which something is accepted as valid, appropriate, or authorized, often through established norms, institutions, or cultural practices. In academic or scientific contexts, legitimation involves gaining recognition and approval from the scientific community or society at large. This means that certain ideas or findings are not just presented, but also validated through peer review, citations, or institutional backing, thereby becoming part of accepted knowledge.
Meaning: The act or process of making something legitimate or acceptable (Noun)
Pronunciation: luh-jit-uh-MAY-shun
Difficulty Level: âââ Intermediate
Etymology: From Medieval Latin legitimatio, from Latin legitimus meaning lawful or legitimate.
Prashant Sir's Notes:
Legitimation is crucial in any form of knowledge system. It's not enough to produce data or insightâwhat matters is how it's received, validated, and integrated into the existing framework. Always connect this word with processes of approval, credibility, and institutional support.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: validation, authorization, approval, endorsement, sanction
Antonyms: rejection, disapproval, invalidation, delegitimization
Usage Examples:
- The legitimation of new theories often requires years of testing and peer review.
- Media coverage can contribute to the legitimation of public movements.
- In authoritarian regimes, the government controls the legitimation of information.
- The university plays a key role in the legitimation of academic research.
Cultural Reference:
"Power is not only exercised through repression but also through legitimation." - Michel Foucault (paraphrased)
Think About It:
Who decides what knowledge or authority is considered legitimate in society, and how does this influence progress or control?
Quick Activity:
Identify one belief or practice in your society that has gained legitimation over time. Write a short paragraph explaining how it became legitimized.
Memory Tip:
Think of "legitimation" as giving something a "legal station"âmaking it officially accepted.
Real-World Application:
Understanding legitimation is key in fields like sociology, law, politics, and science where acceptance by authoritative bodies or public consensus can shape policy, education, and research funding.
Word 2: Institutionalization
Context:
"To study knowledge production from the sociology of professions perspective would mean a focus on the institutionalization of a body of knowledge."
Explanatory Paragraph:
Institutionalization refers to the process by which a concept, practice, or body of knowledge becomes established, structured, and integrated into an organization, society, or system. It signifies that something has moved beyond being a mere idea or informal practice to becoming a formal, enduring part of a social or organizational framework. For example, when a new academic discipline is institutionalized, it becomes part of university curricula, has departments and faculty, and follows standardized rules and practices.
Meaning: The process of embedding something within an organization, culture, or system as a recognized norm or structure (Noun)
Pronunciation: in-sti-TOO-shuh-nuh-lie-ZAY-shun
Difficulty Level: ââââ Advanced
Etymology: From "institution" (established organization or custom) + "-alization" (process of making or becoming).
Prashant Sir's Notes:
This word often appears in sociology, education, and organizational studies. Always think of it as the shift from informal or temporary to formal and structured. Ask yourself: when does an idea or practice become a lasting part of a system? That moment is institutionalization.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: formalization, establishment, structuring, standardization
Antonyms: deregulation, disbandment, de-institutionalization, informality
Usage Examples:
- The institutionalization of environmental science led to the creation of dedicated research centers and university programs.
- Prolonged hospital stays can lead to the institutionalization of patients, making reintegration into society more difficult.
- The institutionalization of gender roles can be seen in traditional educational and occupational systems.
- Over time, the practice of remote work is undergoing institutionalization in many industries.
Cultural Reference:
"The institutionalization of racism means that discrimination is not just individualâit is built into laws, practices, and policies." - Paraphrased from academic discussions in critical race theory.
Think About It:
What are the risks and benefits of institutionalizing ideas or practicesâdoes formal structure help preserve knowledge or stifle innovation?
Quick Activity:
Pick one field of study (e.g., psychology, computer science). Write 2â3 lines on how its institutionalization can be observed in todayâs academic or professional world.
Memory Tip:
Break it down: âinstitutionâ + âalizationâ = making something part of a formal system or institution.
Real-World Application:
Institutionalization plays a vital role in how new fields of knowledge, social practices, or business models gain credibility, funding, and a place in formal systems like education, law, or governance.
Word 3: Reify
Context:
"It however tends to reify institutional power structures in its understanding of the links between knowledge and authority."
Explanatory Paragraph:
To reify means to treat something abstractâlike an idea, relationship, or conceptâas if it were a concrete, tangible thing. In sociology and critical theory, this term is often used to criticize thinking that gives undue solidity or fixedness to flexible or evolving social structures. For instance, when we talk about "the economy" or "power structures" as if they are physical entities, we reify themâmaking them seem more unchangeable and real than they actually are.
Meaning: To make something abstract seem real or concrete (Verb)
Pronunciation: REE-uh-fy
Difficulty Level: ââââ Advanced
Etymology: From Latin res meaning âthingâ + -ify, meaning âto make.â Literally, âto make into a thing.â
Prashant Sir's Notes:
Reify is a subtle but powerful concept. It's about the danger of turning fluid, social, or mental constructs into rigid realities. Use it criticallyâwhen someone takes a social norm or institutional behavior and presents it as natural or unchangeable, they are reifying it. Always ask: is this really a "thing," or are we just treating it like one?
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: objectify, concretize, materialize, solidify (in a figurative sense)
Antonyms: abstract, deconstruct, conceptualize (in some contexts)
Usage Examples:
- Many political ideologies reify national identity, treating it as if it were an unchanging truth.
- She warned against reifying social roles that are, in fact, historically and culturally variable.
- To reify success as only measurable by wealth is to ignore its emotional and moral dimensions.
- Critical theorists challenge any attempt to reify gender categories in rigid, binary terms.
Cultural Reference:
"Reification is the process by which social relations are perceived as inherent attributes of the people involved or as properties of the things themselves." - György Lukåcs (Marxist philosopher)
Think About It:
What abstract ideas do we commonly reify in everyday life, and how might this shape or limit our thinking?
Quick Activity:
Think of one abstract idea (e.g., "freedom" or "success"). Write two sentences: one where it's treated abstractly, and one where it's reified.
Memory Tip:
Reify = "thing-ify" â turning an idea into a "thing" in your mind.
Real-World Application:
Understanding reification helps in fields like sociology, psychology, and media studies, where it's important to recognize how abstract systems (like capitalism or tradition) are often wrongly treated as permanent or natural facts.
Word 4: Authority
Context:
"It however tends to reify institutional power structures in its understanding of the links between knowledge and authority."
Explanatory Paragraph:
Authority refers to the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. It is often associated with institutions, leaders, or experts who are accepted as having legitimate power. In discussions of knowledge and society, authority plays a critical role because the acceptance of information often depends on who is seen as an "authority" on the subject. This can relate to formal positions (like a judge or teacher) or informal credibility (like an experienced researcher or public intellectual).
Meaning: The power or right to control, command, or make decisions (Noun)
Pronunciation: uh-THOR-uh-tee
Difficulty Level: ââ Basic
Etymology: From Old French autoritĂ©, from Latin auctoritas, meaning âinvention, advice, opinion, influence.â
Prashant Sir's Notes:
Authority is one of those fundamental concepts that underlies social structures, education, law, and even knowledge itself. When analyzing any system, always ask: who holds authority, and on what basis? Is it derived from position, expertise, tradition, or force?
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: power, control, influence, command, leadership
Antonyms: subordination, powerlessness, submission, dependence
Usage Examples:
- Teachers hold authority in the classroom to manage behavior and guide learning.
- The scientist was considered an authority on climate change due to her extensive research.
- Governments derive their authority through constitutions and public trust.
- Questioning traditional authority can lead to social progress and reform.
Cultural Reference:
"Wherever there is authority, there is a natural tendency to disobedience." â Thomas Paine
Think About It:
What makes someone or something a legitimate authority in your eyesâexpertise, position, experience, or social consensus?
Quick Activity:
List two people or institutions you view as authorities in your life and explain why you consider them so.
Memory Tip:
Think of "author" in authorityâsomeone who "writes the rules" or has the right to decide.
Real-World Application:
Authority is central in fields like law, education, governance, and even science, where trust in decision-makers or experts influences public behavior and policy acceptance.
Word 5: Mechanism
Context:
"Power is understood as a negative mechanism, which prevents the non-professional actors from offering their ideas and information as legitimate knowledge."
Explanatory Paragraph:
A mechanism is a system, process, or structure by which something happens or is brought about. In both technical and abstract contexts, it refers to the way something works or operates. In the provided sentence, the word is used metaphorically to describe how power functionsâlike an invisible systemâthat inhibits the inclusion of non-professional voices in knowledge production. This usage helps us understand power not just as a force but as a structural or functional method of exclusion.
Meaning: A process or system by which something takes place or is achieved (Noun)
Pronunciation: MEK-uh-niz-um
Difficulty Level: ââ Basic
Etymology: From Greek mÄkhanÄ meaning âmachineâ or âdevice,â through Latin and French influences.
Prashant Sir's Notes:
Mechanism isn't just a word for physical gears and machinesâit often shows up in social science and theory to describe how systems work beneath the surface. Always think: whatâs the âengineâ or âhidden processâ behind an outcome? Thatâs the mechanism at play.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: process, system, means, method, operation
Antonyms: randomness, chaos, spontaneity (in abstract contexts)
Usage Examples:
- The voting mechanism was designed to ensure fairness and transparency.
- Fear operates as a powerful mechanism of control in authoritarian regimes.
- The immune system has complex mechanisms for defending the body against pathogens.
- Critics argue that capitalism has built-in mechanisms that preserve inequality.
Cultural Reference:
"The mechanism of power is less about direct control and more about subtle influence embedded in everyday practices." â Inspired by Michel Foucault's ideas on power.
Think About It:
What are some invisible mechanisms in society that shape your behavior without you even realizing it?
Quick Activity:
Pick one everyday outcome (e.g., receiving a package). List the mechanismsâboth human and technicalâthat make it possible.
Memory Tip:
Think of "mechanism" as the invisible machine behind the scene that makes things happenâwhether it's gears or ideas.
Real-World Application:
Understanding mechanisms helps in fields ranging from engineering and medicine to politics and education, allowing us to analyze the systems that produce specific resultsâwhether intended or not.
