✨ Introduction
Mastering Reading Comprehension begins with mastering the words!
In this post, we dive deep into vocabulary taken directly from an actual CAT RC passage. Each word has been explained in a simple, easy-to-understand way, along with examples to help you grasp its usage in real contexts.
From words like "species" and "cognitive" to "subjection" and "paradise," strengthen your vocabulary one word at a time — and take your RC performance to the next level!
📚 What’s Inside This Vocabulary Post?
- 🔍 Words Sourced from an Actual CAT RC Passage: Directly pick up important vocabulary from real CAT exam material.
- 🧠 Meaningful Explanations: Understand the exact meaning and usage of each word in a simple, student-friendly way.
- ✍️ Context-Based Learning: Learn words with examples that reflect their actual usage in reading comprehension contexts.
- 🗂️ Quick Reference Format: Words are neatly listed with meanings, parts of speech, and example sentences for easy revision.
- 🚀 Boost Your RC and Verbal Ability Skills: Improve your understanding of tough passages by strengthening your vocabulary.
📝 Words Covered in This Article:
- Oscillated
- Apparatus
- Contradictions
- Enlightenment
- Modernity
- Endogenous
- Epoch
- discontinuity
- Marginality
- Unchecked arrogance
WORD-1: Oscillated
Context:
"Throughout the debate, her opinion oscillated between support and skepticism as new arguments emerged." – The Atlantic
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Oscillated" is the past tense of "oscillate," which means to move back and forth in a regular rhythm or to alternate between different states, opinions, or emotions. It is used both in physical contexts (like a fan oscillating side to side) and metaphorically to describe indecision or fluctuation in behavior or thought. The word conveys a sense of repeated or uncertain motion.
Meaning: Moved or swung back and forth at regular intervals; fluctuated between different conditions or opinions. (Verb – past tense)
Pronunciation: OSS-uh-lay-tid
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐⭐ Intermediate
Etymology: From Latin *oscillare* ("to swing"), which may derive from *oscillum* ("a little face" or mask hung and swayed in the wind during festivals).
Prashant Sir's Notes:
"Oscillated" is ideal for describing indecision, movement, or mood changes. It adds depth to essays, especially when discussing internal conflict or dynamic situations. It’s a good upgrade from simpler words like “changed” or “shifted.”
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: swayed, fluctuated, wavered, alternated, hesitated
Antonyms: remained, stabilized, decided, settled, fixed
Usage Examples:
- The temperature oscillated between hot and cold throughout the week.
- Her emotions oscillated wildly during the stressful situation.
- The pendulum oscillated slowly, marking each passing second.
- He oscillated between following his passion and pursuing a stable career.
Cultural Reference:
In physics, the concept of oscillation is fundamental to wave theory, where particles or systems move in a repetitive variation—such as in sound waves, springs, or electric circuits. – Physics Today
Think About It:
Have you ever oscillated between two choices? What caused the back-and-forth, and what helped you decide?
Quick Activity:
Write two sentences using "oscillated"—one to describe physical motion, and one to describe a mental or emotional state.
Memory Tip:
Think of an oscillating fan—**back and forth** movement. Now apply that idea to thoughts or emotions!
Real-World Application:
“Oscillated” is useful in writing about science (e.g., waves), psychology (mood swings), politics (shifting views), and decision-making processes. It adds sophistication and precision to description.
WORD-2: Apparatus
Context:
"The researchers used a complex apparatus to measure the chemical reactions under high pressure." – Scientific American
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Apparatus" refers to a group of tools, equipment, or a structured system designed for a specific function. It can be physical—such as lab instruments or gym equipment—or organizational, referring to systems within governments or institutions. The word emphasizes coordination, structure, and purpose, whether in technology, biology, or bureaucracy.
Meaning: A set of tools or equipment for a specific task, or a structured system within an organization. (Noun)
Pronunciation: ap-uh-RAT-uhs
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐⭐ Intermediate
Etymology: From Latin *apparatus*, meaning "preparation, equipment," from *apparare* (“to prepare for”).
Prashant Sir's Notes:
“Apparatus” is a smart, flexible word. It adds precision when talking about equipment or formal systems. Whether it's a science experiment or a state mechanism, this word fits well in academic, technical, or formal writing.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: equipment, device, system, mechanism, framework
Antonyms: disorganization, disorder, individual piece (contextual)
Usage Examples:
- The firefighters arrived with their full apparatus to tackle the blaze.
- A sophisticated apparatus was installed to monitor the spacecraft’s conditions.
- The government’s legal apparatus took swift action against the corporation.
- Her lab apparatus included microscopes, centrifuges, and a climate-controlled chamber.
Cultural Reference:
In political theory, "the state apparatus" refers to institutions like the police, military, and judiciary that enforce governance—frequently discussed in Marxist and post-structuralist discourse. – Althusser’s *Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses*
Think About It:
Do modern digital systems count as apparatuses? How does our reliance on digital "apparatus" affect how society functions?
Quick Activity:
List one physical apparatus (like a tool or machine) and one institutional apparatus (like a legal or political system) and describe their function.
Memory Tip:
“Apparatus” sounds like “apparatus = prepared + tools” — think of it as a **ready-made system or gear** for doing something efficiently.
Real-World Application:
“Apparatus” is used across science, engineering, politics, and education. Whether you're describing a lab setup or a government system, this word brings clarity and formality to your writing.
WORD-3: Contradictions
Context:
"The novel is full of contradictions—characters who are both kind and cruel, generous and selfish." – The New York Review of Books
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Contradictions" refer to situations, statements, or ideas that are in direct opposition to each other, creating tension or inconsistency. They are especially common in philosophy, literature, psychology, and politics. A contradiction arises when two or more things cannot logically be true at the same time. Sometimes contradictions reveal flaws or errors; other times, they highlight complexity and provoke deeper thought.
Meaning: Statements, ideas, or situations that are logically inconsistent or directly oppose one another. (Noun – plural)
Pronunciation: kon-truh-DIK-shuns
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐ Basic to Intermediate
Etymology: From Latin *contradictio* (“a speaking against”), from *contra-* (“against”) + *dicere* (“to speak”).
Prashant Sir's Notes:
Contradictions are not just errors—they’re powerful tools for analysis. In essays, spotting contradictions in an argument or character helps reveal complexity or weakness. Use the word to elevate your critical thinking.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: inconsistencies, oppositions, paradoxes, conflicts, disparities
Antonyms: agreements, consistencies, alignments, harmonies
Usage Examples:
- There are several contradictions in his testimony that raise doubts about the case.
- The policy is full of contradictions—it promotes equality while enforcing exclusionary rules.
- Her personality was a mix of contradictions: bold yet shy, logical yet dreamy.
- Philosophers often explore contradictions to challenge accepted truths.
Cultural Reference:
In Marxist theory, contradictions between social classes drive historical change—an idea central to *The Communist Manifesto* by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. – Marxist Philosophy Explained
Think About It:
Are contradictions a sign of weakness, or can they reveal depth and humanity in characters, beliefs, and systems?
Quick Activity:
Write two contrasting statements about yourself that could exist as a personal contradiction (e.g., "I love being alone" and "I crave connection").
Memory Tip:
“Contra” = against, “diction” = speech → a **contradiction** is when words or ideas go **against** each other.
Real-World Application:
Recognizing contradictions is essential in debate, academic writing, psychology, and media literacy. It helps you identify flaws, hypocrisy, or complexity in arguments and perspectives.
WORD-4: Enlightenment
Context:
"The philosopher sought enlightenment not just through reason, but through deep inner reflection and spiritual practice." – Philosophy Now
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Enlightenment" refers to the state of gaining profound knowledge, insight, or understanding—often of a spiritual, intellectual, or philosophical nature. The term is also used historically to describe a European intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and individual rights over tradition and religious authority. Whether personal or historical, enlightenment implies awakening from ignorance or illusion.
Meaning: A state of greater knowledge or understanding, often in a spiritual, philosophical, or intellectual sense. (Noun)
Pronunciation: en-LYTE-en-ment
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐⭐ Intermediate
Etymology: From Middle English *enlighten* (to illuminate, instruct) + *-ment*; historically shaped by Latin *illuminare* and related philosophical traditions.
Prashant Sir's Notes:
“Enlightenment” can be used in both secular and spiritual contexts. In essays, be clear about which sense you mean: personal awakening, historical movement, or spiritual liberation. It’s a powerful word—use it thoughtfully.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: awareness, understanding, insight, illumination, wisdom
Antonyms: ignorance, confusion, misunderstanding, darkness
Usage Examples:
- The monk spent years meditating in search of enlightenment.
- The Enlightenment transformed Europe by challenging monarchy and church authority.
- Reading that book was a moment of enlightenment for me—it changed how I view the world.
- The teacher's lesson brought clarity and enlightenment to the confused students.
Cultural Reference:
The *Age of Enlightenment* (17th–18th century) produced thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Kant, who championed human rights, liberty, and rationalism—shaping the foundations of modern democracy. – History Channel
Think About It:
What does it truly mean to be enlightened today—in a world filled with both information and misinformation?
Quick Activity:
Write about one moment in your life—big or small—that gave you a feeling of enlightenment or sudden clarity.
Memory Tip:
Think: **“Enlighten” = bring light** → “Enlightenment” is the **light of understanding** breaking through the darkness of ignorance.
Real-World Application:
“Enlightenment” is used in literature, philosophy, religion, and history. Whether referring to personal growth or political change, it describes moments of powerful, transformative clarity.
WORD-5: Modernity
Context:
"The novel grapples with the tension between tradition and modernity, exploring how rapid change affects identity." – The Guardian
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Modernity" refers to the quality or condition of being modern—associated with the cultural, intellectual, economic, and technological developments that emerged after the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution. It reflects the shift toward rationalism, secularism, scientific progress, individualism, and urban life. In literature, sociology, and history, "modernity" often contrasts with tradition, highlighting the challenges and changes brought by modern life.
Meaning: The state of being modern; a historical and cultural era marked by industrialization, rationality, and social change. (Noun)
Pronunciation: muh-DUR-nuh-tee
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐⭐ Intermediate
Etymology: From Latin *modernus* (“modern”) + *-ity* (a state or quality); gained widespread use in the 19th century in historical and cultural discussions.
Prashant Sir's Notes:
“Modernity” is a deep word—great for history, sociology, literature, and even philosophy. It's not just about being current, but about the cultural shifts that define what we call the ‘modern world.’ Use it thoughtfully to explore contrasts between old and new.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: modern era, contemporary age, progress, industrialization, modern times
Antonyms: tradition, antiquity, premodern world, conservatism
Usage Examples:
- Modernity brought new freedoms, but also alienation and disconnection for many people.
- The artist’s work reflects the anxieties of modernity in a rapidly changing world.
- Scholars debate whether globalization is a continuation of modernity or the rise of something entirely new.
- Modernity reshaped cities, economies, and even human relationships.
Cultural Reference:
Modernity is a key theme in the writings of sociologists like Max Weber and Zygmunt Bauman, who analyzed how modern life affects bureaucracy, identity, and ethics. – Sociology Reader Series
Think About It:
Has modernity improved human life overall, or has it come at the cost of meaning, community, and connection?
Quick Activity:
Write one sentence each comparing how modernity has changed communication, work, and family life.
Memory Tip:
“Modernity” = the essence of being **modern**—just think: industrial revolutions, skyscrapers, internet, urban hustle.
Real-World Application:
“Modernity” is key in understanding history, politics, literature, and social theory. It helps explain the forces that shaped the modern world—from democracy to digital culture.
WORD-6: Epoch
Context:
"The invention of the internet marked a new epoch in human communication and global connectivity." – The Atlantic
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Epoch" refers to a distinct and significant period in history or a person’s life, often characterized by remarkable events, changes, or developments. In geology, it denotes a formal subdivision of time, such as the Holocene epoch. In literature and general use, it evokes a sense of historical turning points—times that shape what comes after. It’s often used to mark the beginning of something transformative.
Meaning: A notable or defining period in history, life, or the natural world. (Noun)
Pronunciation: EE-pok / EH-pok
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐ Basic to Intermediate
Etymology: From Greek *epokhē* meaning "pause" or "fixed point in time"; entered English via Latin and French to signify a meaningful historical period.
Prashant Sir's Notes:
"Epoch" is a rich word that adds depth to historical and narrative writing. Use it to highlight transformation, beginnings, or monumental shifts. It’s stronger than just saying “time” or “period.”
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: era, age, period, time, phase
Antonyms: moment, instant, day-to-day (contextual)
Usage Examples:
- The Renaissance was an epoch of artistic and intellectual rebirth.
- The moon landing ushered in a new epoch of space exploration.
- For the country, the revolution marked the end of a political epoch.
- Geologists argue that we have entered the Anthropocene epoch due to human impact on the planet.
Cultural Reference:
In geology, epochs are used to define the layers of Earth's history—such as the Pleistocene or Holocene—allowing scientists to study how life and climate evolved over millions of years. – National Geographic
Think About It:
What events in your own life might define an "epoch"—a before and after moment that changed everything?
Quick Activity:
Write a sentence naming an epoch in world history and explain what made it significant.
Memory Tip:
“Epoch” sounds like “epic”—think: an **epic** moment in time that **defines** an entire age or shift.
Real-World Application:
"Epoch" is used in history, literature, science, and even journalism. It’s perfect for describing meaningful transitions—whether in human civilization, Earth’s geology, or someone's personal journey.
WORD-7: Discontinuity
Context:
"The sudden regime change introduced a sharp discontinuity in the country’s foreign policy." – Foreign Affairs
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Discontinuity" refers to a break, interruption, or lack of continuity in a process, structure, or pattern. It is used in a variety of disciplines—from mathematics and science to history and philosophy—to describe a disruption or a sharp difference between what comes before and after. The term often implies a moment of change, fracture, or transition that interrupts the expected or natural flow.
Meaning: A break, gap, or interruption in a continuous process or structure. (Noun)
Pronunciation: dis-kon-tin-YOO-uh-tee
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐⭐ Intermediate
Etymology: From Latin *dis-* (apart, not) + *continuus* (continuous), meaning “not continuous.”
Prashant Sir's Notes:
"Discontinuity" is a great academic word, especially in essays about change, rupture, or transformation. It's useful when discussing history, identity, policy, or theory—anywhere a break from tradition or norm occurs.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: break, rupture, gap, interruption, divergence
Antonyms: continuity, flow, consistency, sequence, connection
Usage Examples:
- There is a clear discontinuity between medieval and modern political thought.
- Discontinuity in the data suggests a malfunction in the measuring equipment.
- The author highlights a discontinuity in the narrative to reflect trauma and loss.
- Globalization has not erased cultural discontinuities—it has sometimes intensified them.
Cultural Reference:
Philosopher Michel Foucault emphasized discontinuity in history, arguing that ideas and power structures do not evolve smoothly but shift through ruptures and transformations. – Foucault’s *The Archaeology of Knowledge*
Think About It:
Can discontinuity in your personal journey be a source of growth rather than loss? What does it reveal about change and transformation?
Quick Activity:
Identify one major discontinuity in global or personal history (e.g., COVID-19, a career change, a revolution). Describe its causes and effects in two lines.
Memory Tip:
“Dis-” = not + “continuity” = flow → **discontinuity = not flowing or connected**. Think of a cut in a thread or a gap in a road.
Real-World Application:
“Discontinuity” is widely used in academic writing, particularly in history, science, sociology, and mathematics. It helps articulate breaks in patterns—essential for critical thinking and analysis.
WORD-8: Marginality
Context:
"The novel explores themes of identity and marginality, portraying characters who exist on the edges of society." – The Guardian
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Marginality" refers to the state or condition of being pushed to the edge—whether socially, economically, culturally, or politically. People or groups experiencing marginality often have limited access to power, resources, or representation. The term is widely used in sociology, literature, and cultural studies to highlight inequality and exclusion. Marginality is not just physical distance, but symbolic or structural separation from mainstream systems.
Meaning: The condition of being excluded, overlooked, or positioned at the edge of a dominant group or system. (Noun)
Pronunciation: mar-juh-NAL-uh-tee
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐⭐ Intermediate
Etymology: From *marginal* (from Latin *margo* = edge) + *-ity* (state or condition); the concept emerged strongly in 20th-century social theory.
Prashant Sir's Notes:
“Marginality” is a powerful term for essays and analysis. Use it when discussing groups who are outside the center of power—whether culturally, socially, or economically. Always tie it to context: who is marginal, and why?
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: exclusion, alienation, periphery, isolation, disadvantage
Antonyms: inclusion, centrality, prominence, integration
Usage Examples:
- The film highlights the marginality experienced by refugees in urban environments.
- Her academic work focuses on the marginality of indigenous voices in colonial history.
- The writer spoke of growing up in marginality—always present, but rarely seen.
- Economic marginality continues to affect rural populations lacking infrastructure and services.
Cultural Reference:
Marginality is central to postcolonial and feminist theories, which analyze how certain identities—like race, gender, or sexuality—are excluded from dominant narratives and institutions. – Edward Said’s *Culture and Imperialism*
Think About It:
Who decides who belongs at the center—and who remains at the margins? Can marginality ever be a source of insight or resistance?
Quick Activity:
List a group or character from a book, film, or society that experiences marginality. What causes their exclusion, and how do they respond to it?
Memory Tip:
“Marginality” = **life at the margin** → Think: people pushed to the edge of a page or society, barely visible in the text of history.
Real-World Application:
“Marginality” is vital in sociology, literature, human rights, and education. Understanding it helps unpack systems of inequality and explore how voices on the periphery challenge the status quo.
WORD-9: Unchecked Arrogance
Context:
"The collapse of the company was fueled by unchecked arrogance at the top, where leaders ignored all warnings." – The Financial Times
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Unchecked arrogance" describes a state in which excessive pride or overconfidence is left unchallenged or uncorrected. This phrase implies a dangerous level of ego or self-importance that goes unmoderated, often leading to poor decisions, broken relationships, or societal consequences. It’s commonly used to critique power, leadership, or behavior where humility and accountability are absent.
Meaning: Excessive pride or self-importance that is not controlled, questioned, or restrained. (Noun Phrase)
Pronunciation: un-CHECKT AIR-uh-guns
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐ Basic to Intermediate
Etymology: “Unchecked” comes from the idea of not being stopped or limited. “Arrogance” is from Latin *arrogantia*, meaning pride, presumption, or overbearing behavior.
Prashant Sir's Notes:
This phrase is excellent for analytical and critical writing. It often appears in political commentary, business journalism, and literature. Use it to describe leadership failures, blind spots, or downfall due to ego.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: unchecked pride, hubris, inflated ego, superiority complex, overconfidence
Antonyms: humility, modesty, accountability, restraint, groundedness
Usage Examples:
- Unchecked arrogance among the ruling elite led to widespread social unrest.
- The downfall of the protagonist is a result of his unchecked arrogance and disregard for others.
- Unchecked arrogance in tech companies has raised ethical concerns about innovation without accountability.
- History offers countless examples of unchecked arrogance resulting in collapse and chaos.
Cultural Reference:
In Greek tragedies, unchecked arrogance—known as **hubris**—often brings about the hero’s downfall, as seen in characters like Oedipus and Achilles. – Classical Literature Review
Think About It:
Can unchecked arrogance ever be mistaken for confidence? Where do we draw the line between boldness and destructive pride?
Quick Activity:
Write a short paragraph describing a historical, literary, or fictional figure whose unchecked arrogance led to failure. What lessons can be drawn?
Memory Tip:
“Unchecked” = not stopped. “Arrogance” = excessive pride. Together, **unchecked arrogance** = pride running wild with no brakes.
Real-World Application:
This phrase is useful in essays, critiques, character analysis, and opinion writing—especially when analyzing leadership, failure, or power dynamics.
WORD-10: Endogenous
Context:
"The researchers concluded that the disease was caused by endogenous factors rather than environmental exposure." – Nature
Explanatory Paragraph:
"Endogenous" refers to something that originates from within a system, organism, or process. In biology, it describes processes or substances that arise internally (like hormones produced by the body). In economics, it refers to factors generated within a model or system rather than imposed externally. The term often contrasts with “exogenous,” which refers to things that come from outside.
Meaning: Originating from within a system, body, or process. (Adjective)
Pronunciation: en-DAW-juh-nuhs
Difficulty Level: ⭐⭐⭐ Advanced
Etymology: From Greek *endon* (within) + *genes* (born of or produced by).
Prashant Sir's Notes:
"Endogenous" is a technical term, but very useful in academic contexts—especially in biology, economics, and systems theory. Always pair it with “exogenous” in discussions for contrast and clarity.
Synonyms & Antonyms:
Synonyms: internal, self-generated, innate, intrinsic
Antonyms: exogenous, external, foreign, imported
Usage Examples:
- The hormone is produced endogenously in response to stress.
- Economic models must account for both endogenous and exogenous variables.
- The cancer developed due to an endogenous genetic mutation.
- Endogenous creativity often emerges from deep self-reflection rather than outside influence.
Cultural Reference:
In Keynesian economics, investment is often seen as endogenous—shaped by income and expectations within the system—unlike classical models that treat it as fixed or exogenous. – Economic Thought Digest
Think About It:
Do most of our thoughts and behaviors come from endogenous motivations—or are they shaped by external (exogenous) forces like society and media?
Quick Activity:
Write two sentences—one using “endogenous” to describe a biological process, and one to describe an economic or personal trait.
Memory Tip:
“Endo-” = inside. So **endogenous** = something **generated inside** the body, system, or situation.
Real-World Application:
“Endogenous” is essential in academic writing, especially in science, economics, and psychology. It allows for precise explanations of causes and influences that originate from within a system.