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RC Passage
Direction for the questions 10 to 13: The passage below is accompanied by a set of four questions. Choose the best answer to each question.
The passage below is accompanied by a set of questions. Choose the best answer to each question. Aggression is any behavior that is directed toward injuring, harming, or inflicting pain on another living being or group of beings. Generally, the victim(s) of aggression must wish to avoid such behavior in order for it to be considered true aggression. Aggression is also categorized according to its ultimate intent. Hostile aggression is an aggressive act that results from anger, and is intended to inflict pain or injury because of that anger. Instrumental aggression is an aggressive act that is regarded as a means to an end other than pain or injury. For example, an enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject. The concept of aggression is very broad, and includes many categories of behavior (e.g., verbal aggression, street crime, child abuse, spouse abuse, group conflict, war, etc.). A number of theories and models of aggression have arisen to explain these diverse forms of behavior, and these theories/models tend to be categorized according to their specific focus. The most common system of categorization groups the various approaches to aggression into three separate areas, based upon the three key variables that are present whenever any aggressive act or set of acts is committed.
The first variable is the aggressor him/herself. The second is the social situation or circumstance in which the aggressive act(s) occur.
The third variable is the target or victim of aggression.
Regarding theories and research on the aggressor, the fundamental focus is on the factors that lead an individual (or group) to commit aggressive acts. At the most basic level, some argue that aggressive urges and actions are the result of inborn, biological factors.
Sigmund Freud (1930) proposed that all individuals are born with a death instinct that predisposes us to a variety of aggressive behaviors, including suicide (self directed aggression) and mental illness (possibly due to an unhealthy or unnatural suppression of aggressive urges). Other influential perspectives supporting a biological basis for aggression conclude that humans evolved with an abnormally low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses (in comparison to other species), and that humans possess a powerful instinct for property accumulation and territorialism. It is proposed that this instinct accounts for hostile behaviors ranging from minor street crime to world wars. Hormonal factors also appear to play a significant role in fostering aggressive tendencies. For example, the hormone testosterone has been shown to increase aggressive behaviors when injected into animals. Men and women convicted of violent crimes also possess significantly higher levels of testosterone than men and women convicted of non violent crimes. Numerous studies comparing different age groups, racial/ethnic groups, and cultures also indicate that men, overall, are more likely to engage in a variety of aggressive behaviors (e.g., sexual assault, aggravated assault, etc.) than women. One explanation for higher levels of aggression in men is based on the assumption that, on average, men have higher levels of testosterone than women.
RC Line-wise Explanation
Paragraph 1
"Aggression is any behavior that is directed toward injuring, harming, or inflicting pain on another living being or group of beings."
Explanation: Aggression refers to actions aimed at hurting or causing harm to another person or group.
"Generally, the victim(s) of aggression must wish to avoid such behavior in order for it to be considered true aggression."
Explanation: For an act to count as aggression, the target must not want to experience the aggressive behavior.
"Aggression is also categorized according to its ultimate intent."
Explanation: Aggression is divided based on the intention behind the act.
"Hostile aggression is an aggressive act that results from anger, and is intended to inflict pain or injury because of that anger."
Explanation: Hostile aggression arises from anger and is done specifically to cause pain or harm.
"Instrumental aggression is an aggressive act that is regarded as a means to an end other than pain or injury."
Explanation: Instrumental aggression is used as a tool to achieve a goal other than just hurting someone.
"For example, an enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject."
Explanation: An example of instrumental aggression is torturing someone for information, even if the torturer isn't angry with the victim.
"The concept of aggression is very broad, and includes many categories of behavior (e.g., verbal aggression, street crime, child abuse, spouse abuse, group conflict, war, etc.)."
Explanation: Aggression covers a wide range of behaviors, from speech to violence and conflict.
"A number of theories and models of aggression have arisen to explain these diverse forms of behavior, and these theories/models tend to be categorized according to their specific focus."
Explanation: Many theories exist to explain aggression, and they are grouped based on what aspect they study.
"The most common system of categorization groups the various approaches to aggression into three separate areas, based upon the three key variables that are present whenever any aggressive act or set of acts is committed."
Explanation: The most popular way to classify these theories is based on three main factors involved in any act of aggression.
Paragraph 2
"The first variable is the aggressor him/herself."
Explanation: The first factor focuses on the person who commits the aggressive act.
"The second is the social situation or circumstance in which the aggressive act(s) occur."
Explanation: The second factor is the environment or situation in which aggression takes place.
"The third variable is the target or victim of aggression."
Explanation: The third factor is the individual or group who is the recipient of the aggression.
Paragraph 3
"Regarding theories and research on the aggressor, the fundamental focus is on the factors that lead an individual (or group) to commit aggressive acts."
Explanation: Theories about the aggressor try to explain what causes someone to behave aggressively.
"At the most basic level, some argue that aggressive urges and actions are the result of inborn, biological factors."
Explanation: Some researchers believe aggression is rooted in biology and natural instincts.
"Sigmund Freud (1930) proposed that all individuals are born with a death instinct that predisposes us to a variety of aggressive behaviors, including suicide (self directed aggression) and mental illness (possibly due to an unhealthy or unnatural suppression of aggressive urges)."
Explanation: Freud suggested that people have a natural instinct toward death, which can lead to behaviors like suicide or mental illness if aggression is repressed.
"Other influential perspectives supporting a biological basis for aggression conclude that humans evolved with an abnormally low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses (in comparison to other species), and that humans possess a powerful instinct for property accumulation and territorialism."
Explanation: Other theories say that humans have weak natural restraints on aggression and are strongly driven to claim and protect territory and possessions.
"It is proposed that this instinct accounts for hostile behaviors ranging from minor street crime to world wars."
Explanation: This instinct is believed to explain everything from petty crimes to massive conflicts like wars.
"Hormonal factors also appear to play a significant role in fostering aggressive tendencies."
Explanation: Hormones are also seen as important in influencing aggression.
"For example, the hormone testosterone has been shown to increase aggressive behaviors when injected into animals."
Explanation: Experiments show that giving testosterone to animals increases their aggression.
"Men and women convicted of violent crimes also possess significantly higher levels of testosterone than men and women convicted of non violent crimes."
Explanation: People convicted of violent crimes tend to have higher testosterone levels compared to those convicted of non-violent crimes.
"Numerous studies comparing different age groups, racial/ethnic groups, and cultures also indicate that men, overall, are more likely to engage in a variety of aggressive behaviors (e.g., sexual assault, aggravated assault, etc.) than women."
Explanation: Research across demographics shows that men are generally more aggressive than women.
"One explanation for higher levels of aggression in men is based on the assumption that, on average, men have higher levels of testosterone than women."
Explanation: A common explanation is that men produce more testosterone, which may lead to more aggressive behavior.
RC Paragraph Explanation
Paragraph 1 Summary
Aggression is defined as behavior intended to harm others, which can be either hostile (driven by anger) or instrumental (a means to an end). The concept is broad and includes many forms of behavior, leading to the development of various theories categorized by three variables: the aggressor, the situation, and the target.
Paragraph 2 Summary
Aggressive behavior can be analyzed using three main variables: the individual who acts aggressively, the environment or situation that prompts the aggression, and the victim or target.
Paragraph 3 Summary
Theories focused on the aggressor often cite biological reasons for aggression, including Freud’s death instinct, evolutionary tendencies for territory and property, and hormonal influences like testosterone. Research supports that men, who typically have higher testosterone, are more prone to aggressive behavior than women.
RC Quick Table Summary
| Paragraph Number | Main Idea |
|---|---|
| Paragraph 1 | Defines aggression and distinguishes between hostile and instrumental types. |
| Paragraph 2 | Outlines three key variables in aggression: the aggressor, situation, and target. |
| Paragraph 3 | Describes biological theories of aggression focusing on instincts and hormones. |
RC Questions
Ques 10. All of the following statements can be seen as logically implied by the arguments of the passage EXCEPT:
Ques 11. The author identifies three essential factors according to which theories of aggression are most commonly categorised. Which of the following options is closest to the factors identified by the author?
Ques 12. “[A]n enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject.” Which one of the following best explicates the larger point being made by the author here?
Ques 13. The author discusses all of the following arguments in the passage EXCEPT that:
