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RC Passage
Direction for the questions 9 to 12: The passage below is accompanied by a set of four questions. Choose the best answer to each question.
We begin with the emergence of the philosophy of the social sciences as an arena of thought and as a set of social institutions. The two characterisations overlap but are not congruent. Academic disciplines are social institutions. . . . My view is that institutions are all those social entities that organise action: they link acting individuals into social structures.
There are various kinds of institutions. Hegelians and Marxists emphasise universal institutions such as the family, rituals, governance, economy and the military. These are mostly institutions that just grew. Perhaps in some imaginary beginning of time they spontaneously appeared. In their present incarnations, however, they are very much the product of conscious attempts to mould and plan them. We have family law, established and disestablished churches, constitutions and laws, including those governing the economy and the military.
Institutions deriving from statute, like joint-stock companies are formal by contrast with informal ones such as friendships. There are some institutions that come in both informal and formal variants, as well as in mixed ones. Consider the fact that the stock exchange and the black market are both market institutions, one formal one not. Consider further that there are many features of the work of the stock exchange that rely on informal, noncodifiable agreements, not least the language used for communication. To be precise, mixtures are the norm . . . From constitutions at the top to by-laws near the bottom we are always adding to, or tinkering with, earlier institutions, the grown and the designed are intertwined.
It is usual in social thought to treat culture and tradition as different from, although alongside, institutions. The view taken here is different. Culture and tradition are sub-sets of institutions analytically isolated for explanatory or expository purposes. Some social scientists have taken all institutions, even purely local ones, to be entities that satisfy basic human needs - under local conditions . . . Others differed and declared any structure of reciprocal roles and norms an institution. Most of these differences are differences of emphasis rather than disagreements. Let us straddle all these versions and present institutions very generally . . . as structures that serve to coordinate the actions of individuals. . . . Institutions themselves then have no aims or purpose other than those given to them by actors or used by actors to explain them .
Language is the formative institution for social life and for science . . . Both formal and informal language is involved, naturally grown or designed. (Language is all of these to varying degrees.) Languages are paradigms of institutions or, from another perspective, nested sets of institutions. Syntax, semantics, lexicon and alphabet/character-set are all institutions within the larger institutional framework of a written language. Natural languages are typical examples of what Ferguson called âthe result of human action, but not the execution of any human designâ[;] reformed natural languages and artificial languages introduce design into their modifications or refinements of natural language. Above all, languages are paradigms of institutional tools that function to coordinate.
RC Line-wise Explanation
Paragraph 1
Original: We begin with the emergence of the philosophy of the social sciences as an arena of thought and as a set of social institutions.
Explanation: The discussion starts by recognizing the philosophy of social sciences both as a field of intellectual inquiry and as part of established societal structures.
Original: The two characterisations overlap but are not congruent.
Explanation: Although these two aspectsâintellectual and institutionalâshare some features, they are not exactly the same.
Original: Academic disciplines are social institutions.
Explanation: Fields of study, such as the social sciences, function as organized social structures.
Original: My view is that institutions are all those social entities that organise action: they link acting individuals into social structures.
Explanation: The author defines institutions as systems that coordinate peopleâs actions and form social frameworks.
Paragraph 2
Original: There are various kinds of institutions. Hegelians and Marxists emphasise universal institutions such as the family, rituals, governance, economy and the military.
Explanation: Institutions differ in type. Philosophers like Hegelians and Marxists highlight broad societal systems like family and government as core institutions.
Original: These are mostly institutions that just grew. Perhaps in some imaginary beginning of time they spontaneously appeared.
Explanation: Many of these major institutions werenât formally planned but evolved naturally over time.
Original: In their present incarnations, however, they are very much the product of conscious attempts to mould and plan them.
Explanation: Despite their organic origins, modern versions of these institutions have been shaped intentionally.
Original: We have family law, established and disestablished churches, constitutions and laws, including those governing the economy and the military.
Explanation: Examples include legal and formal systems built around family, religion, governance, and economic structures.
Paragraph 3
Original: Institutions deriving from statute, like joint-stock companies are formal by contrast with informal ones such as friendships.
Explanation: Institutions created through laws (like companies) are formal, whereas ones like friendships are informal.
Original: There are some institutions that come in both informal and formal variants, as well as in mixed ones.
Explanation: Some institutions can be found in formal, informal, or hybrid forms.
Original: Consider the fact that the stock exchange and the black market are both market institutions, one formal one not.
Explanation: For example, both the stock exchange and the black market are economic systems, but only one is legally recognized.
Original: Consider further that there are many features of the work of the stock exchange that rely on informal, noncodifiable agreements, not least the language used for communication.
Explanation: Even formal institutions like the stock exchange depend on unwritten rules and informal communication.
Original: To be precise, mixtures are the norm . . .
Explanation: In reality, most institutions combine formal and informal elements.
Original: From constitutions at the top to by-laws near the bottom we are always adding to, or tinkering with, earlier institutions, the grown and the designed are intertwined.
Explanation: Whether itâs large frameworks like constitutions or smaller rules like by-laws, institutions evolve through a mix of natural development and deliberate design.
Paragraph 4
Original: It is usual in social thought to treat culture and tradition as different from, although alongside, institutions.
Explanation: Typically, scholars see culture and tradition as distinct from institutions, though they coexist.
Original: The view taken here is different. Culture and tradition are sub-sets of institutions analytically isolated for explanatory or expository purposes.
Explanation: The author disagrees and considers culture and tradition to be types of institutions, separated only for the sake of explanation.
Original: Some social scientists have taken all institutions, even purely local ones, to be entities that satisfy basic human needs - under local conditions . . .
Explanation: Some scholars believe every institutionâno matter how smallâexists to meet essential human needs in specific contexts.
Original: Others differed and declared any structure of reciprocal roles and norms an institution.
Explanation: Others define institutions as any system involving mutual roles and shared expectations.
Original: Most of these differences are differences of emphasis rather than disagreements.
Explanation: These definitions vary more in focus than in actual contradiction.
Original: Let us straddle all these versions and present institutions very generally . . . as structures that serve to coordinate the actions of individuals.
Explanation: The author adopts a broad definition: institutions are systems designed to coordinate how people act.
Original: Institutions themselves then have no aims or purpose other than those given to them by actors or used by actors to explain them . . .
Explanation: Institutions donât have goals on their own; their functions and meanings come from the people using or interpreting them.
Paragraph 5
Original: Language is the formative institution for social life and for science . . .
Explanation: Language is considered the foundational institution that enables both social interaction and scientific development.
Original: Both formal and informal language is involved, naturally grown or designed. (Language is all of these to varying degrees.)
Explanation: Language includes both natural and artificial forms, formal and informal elements.
Original: Languages are paradigms of institutions or, from another perspective, nested sets of institutions.
Explanation: Languages exemplify what institutions are and can also be viewed as groups of smaller institutions within a larger one.
Original: Syntax, semantics, lexicon and alphabet/character-set are all institutions within the larger institutional framework of a written language.
Explanation: The components of languageâlike grammar and vocabularyâare institutions in themselves that belong to the broader system of written language.
Original: Natural languages are typical examples of what Ferguson called âthe result of human action, but not the execution of any human designâ[;] reformed natural languages and artificial languages introduce design into their modifications or refinements of natural language.
Explanation: Natural languages evolve through human use without specific planning, but when people deliberately change or create languages, they introduce conscious design.
Original: Above all, languages are paradigms of institutional tools that function to coordinate.
Explanation: Ultimately, language serves as a perfect example of an institution because its main purpose is to help people coordinate their actions and thoughts.
RC Paragraph Explanation
Paragraph 1 Summary
The philosophy of social sciences can be seen both as an intellectual pursuit and as part of institutional systems. Institutions are defined as social frameworks that guide and organize human behavior.
Paragraph 2 Summary
While some major institutions like family and government seem to have evolved naturally, their modern forms are often the result of intentional design through legal and political systems.
Paragraph 3 Summary
Institutions vary from formal to informal, and many are hybrids. Formal structures like stock exchanges often depend on informal rules, showing that most institutions are mixtures of designed and organic elements.
Paragraph 4 Summary
Contrary to traditional views, culture and tradition are treated here as types of institutions. Despite varied definitions, all institutions are essentially systems to coordinate individual actions, shaped by the intentions of those who use them.
Paragraph 5 Summary
Language is the most fundamental institution, consisting of nested systems like syntax and vocabulary. It evolves both naturally and by design, and its primary role is to coordinate human activity.
RC Quick Table Summary
| Paragraph Number | Main Idea |
|---|---|
| Paragraph 1 | Institutions organize social actions and include academic disciplines. |
| Paragraph 2 | Core institutions evolved over time but are now shaped intentionally. |
| Paragraph 3 | Institutions are often hybrids of formal and informal elements. |
| Paragraph 4 | Culture and tradition are institutional tools that coordinate action. |
| Paragraph 5 | Language is the central coordinating institution of social life. |
RC Questions
Ques 9. âConsider the fact that the stock exchange and the black market are both market institutions, one formal one not.â Which one of the following statements best explains this quote, in the context of the passage?
Ques 10. All of the following inferences from the passage are false, EXCEPT:
Ques 11. . In the first paragraph of the passage, what are the two âcharacterisationsâ that are seen as overlapping but not congruent?
Ques 12. Which of the following statements best represents the essence of the passage?
