History & Words: ‘Lexicon’ (April 19)

Welcome to ‘History & Words.’ I’m Prashant, founder of Wordpandit and the Learning Inc. Network. This series combines my passion for language learning with historical context. Each entry explores a word’s significance on a specific date, enhancing vocabulary while deepening understanding of history. Join me in this journey of words through time.

🔍 Word of the Day: Lexicon

Pronunciation: /ˈlɛksɪkɒn/ (LEK-si-kon)

🌍 Introduction

On April 19, 1755, Samuel Johnson published his monumental “Dictionary of the English Language,” a work that would transform how English speakers understood and utilized their own language. This pioneering achievement, which took Johnson nearly nine years to complete, contained definitions for approximately 43,000 words and represented the first truly comprehensive English dictionary. The dictionary not only documented the language but also helped standardize English spelling and usage during a period of significant linguistic evolution.

Johnson’s dictionary arrived at a pivotal moment in English linguistic history, as the language was expanding rapidly through colonization, trade, and scientific advancement, yet lacked authoritative guidance on proper usage and spelling. Before Johnson, English dictionaries were limited in scope and often focused solely on “hard words” rather than attempting to catalog the entire language. His work fundamentally changed expectations of what a dictionary should be and established a model that would influence lexicography for centuries to come.

The concept of a lexicon—a comprehensive inventory of words and their meanings—reflects humanity’s enduring desire to document, preserve, and understand language. By exploring the significance of Johnson’s dictionary on this date, we gain insight into how the deliberate compilation and organization of language can both reflect and shape cultural evolution, educational practices, and national identity.

🌱 Etymology

The word “lexicon” derives from the Greek lexikon, a neuter form of “lexikos” meaning “of or for words,” which itself comes from “lexis” meaning “word” or “speech.” Originally, “lexicon” specifically referred to a dictionary of Greek, Hebrew, or Arabic, reflecting its ancient linguistic origins. By the early 18th century, the term had broadened to encompass dictionaries or vocabularies of any language. Today, “lexicon” can refer to a formal dictionary, the vocabulary of a particular language, person, or subject area, or even the mental inventory of words a person knows and uses.

📖 Key Vocabulary

• 🔑 Lexicography: The art or practice of compiling dictionaries
• 🔑 Etymology: The study of the origin of words and how their meanings have changed throughout history
• 🔑 Corpus: A collection of written texts, especially the entire body of writings of a particular author or a body of writing on a particular subject
• 🔑 Orthography: The conventional spelling system of a language

🏛️ Historical Context

The concept of compiling word lists and their meanings dates back to ancient civilizations. The earliest known lexicographical works were created in Mesopotamia on clay tablets around 2300 BCE, consisting of bilingual word lists in Sumerian and Akkadian. Ancient Greek scholars developed lexica for understanding Homeric texts, while Chinese character dictionaries appeared as early as the 3rd century BCE with the Erya.

In medieval Europe, glossaries emerged to help readers understand rare or foreign terms in Latin texts. As vernacular languages gained importance, early wordbooks began to appear. For English, Robert Cawdrey’s “Table Alphabeticall” (1604) is often considered the first monolingual English dictionary, though it contained only about 2,500 “hard words” and their brief explanations.

The 17th and early 18th centuries witnessed growing interest in language standardization across Europe, particularly in France, where the Académie Française established authoritative dictionaries. In England, however, no comparable institution existed, creating a vacuum that individual scholars like Johnson would eventually fill. The Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason, order, and categorization provided the intellectual context for Johnson’s ambitious project, which sought to impose logic and structure on a language often described as chaotic.

By the mid-18th century, English was experiencing unprecedented growth and change. The expansion of the British Empire, scientific developments, and increasing literacy created demand for a more comprehensive approach to documenting and organizing the language. This period also saw growing nationalism and interest in English as a marker of national identity, further motivating efforts to codify and celebrate the language.

⏳ Timeline

1. 1604: Robert Cawdrey publishes “A Table Alphabeticall,” the first monolingual English dictionary
2. 1690s: John Locke and others advocate for an English language academy similar to the Académie Française
3. 1746: Samuel Johnson signs contract with a group of London booksellers to produce a new dictionary
4. 1747: Johnson publishes his “Plan of a Dictionary of the English Language”
5. April 19, 1755: Publication of Johnson’s “Dictionary of the English Language”
6. 1828: Noah Webster publishes “An American Dictionary of the English Language”
7. 1857: Work begins on the “Oxford English Dictionary”
8. 1884: First volume of the “Oxford English Dictionary” is published
9. 1928: Completion of the first edition of the “Oxford English Dictionary”

🌟 The Day’s Significance

April 19, 1755, marked a watershed moment in English linguistic history with the publication of Johnson’s dictionary. The work was presented to the Earl of Chesterfield, who had initially promised patronage but had largely ignored Johnson during the dictionary’s creation. Johnson’s response to Chesterfield’s belated interest—famously defining a patron as “commonly a wretch who supports with insolence, and is paid with flattery”—reflects both the independence of his scholarship and the changing relationship between writers and patrons in the 18th century.

The dictionary itself was revolutionary in multiple ways. Unlike previous English dictionaries, Johnson’s work was comprehensive, including common words alongside technical and obscure terms. He incorporated approximately 114,000 quotations from literature to illustrate word usage, establishing the precedent for evidence-based lexicography. Johnson also introduced more precise definitions, often capturing subtle distinctions in meaning that previous dictionaries had ignored.

Perhaps most significantly, Johnson’s dictionary helped standardize English spelling during a period when orthography remained highly variable. While not all of his preferences prevailed (he favored “musick” over “music,” for example), his work significantly reduced spelling variations and established conventions that would largely persist into modern English. This standardization facilitated communication, education, and printing throughout the English-speaking world.

The reception of the dictionary was overwhelmingly positive. Despite its significant cost—the first edition sold for £4 10s, equivalent to several months’ wages for an ordinary worker—it sold well and was immediately recognized as authoritative. Johnson received an honorary Master of Arts degree from Oxford University in recognition of his achievement, and the dictionary secured his reputation as one of the foremost intellectuals of his age.

💬 Quote

“Words are but the signs of ideas.” – Samuel Johnson, Preface to “A Dictionary of the English Language” (1755)

🔮 Modern Usage and Reflection

Today, “lexicon” encompasses not just formal dictionaries but the entire vocabulary of a language, field, or individual. Linguists speak of the “mental lexicon”—the words stored in a person’s mind—while specialists refer to the specialized lexicons of fields ranging from medicine to computing. The term has expanded metaphorically to refer to any comprehensive inventory of elements, whether linguistic or not.

Modern lexicography has evolved dramatically since Johnson’s time, embracing digital technologies, corpus linguistics, and descriptive rather than prescriptive approaches. Contemporary dictionaries typically document language as it is actually used rather than attempting to establish “correct” usage. This shift reflects changing understandings of how languages naturally evolve and recognition of the diversity of English used globally.

The digital revolution has transformed how lexicons are compiled, accessed, and utilized. Online dictionaries can be continuously updated to reflect emerging terms and usage, while sophisticated search algorithms and hyperlinks create new ways to navigate linguistic information. Despite these technological advances, the fundamental purpose of lexicography—to document and explain the meanings of words—remains unchanged from Johnson’s era.

🏛️ Legacy

Johnson’s dictionary established a model for comprehensive lexicography that would influence all subsequent English dictionaries, most notably the Oxford English Dictionary. His approach to definitions, use of literary quotations, and attention to etymology created standards that lexicographers continue to follow. The dictionary also helped establish Johnson himself as a cultural authority whose opinions on language carried extraordinary weight.

Beyond its influence on subsequent dictionaries, Johnson’s work contributed significantly to the standardization of written English, facilitating communication, education, and publishing throughout the English-speaking world. By providing a common reference point for spelling and usage, the dictionary helped unify written English at a time when Britain’s colonial expansion was spreading the language globally.

The dictionary also represents an important milestone in the development of English national identity. By documenting and celebrating the richness of the language, Johnson’s work bolstered pride in English as a literary and intellectual medium at a time when French remained the dominant language of European high culture. This linguistic nationalism would continue to develop throughout the 19th century, intertwining language with notions of national character and heritage.

🔍 Comparative Analysis

Johnson’s approach to lexicography reflected 18th-century assumptions about language and authority. He believed in the importance of maintaining linguistic standards and often made moral judgments in his definitions. For example, he defined “network” as “anything reticulated or decussated, at equal distances, with interstices between the intersections,” but added, “is anything of network worth the making?” Modern lexicographers, by contrast, typically adopt a descriptive rather than prescriptive stance, documenting language as it is actually used without passing judgment on its correctness or worth.

While Johnson worked largely alone with limited resources, contemporary lexicography is typically collaborative, drawing on vast digital corpora and sophisticated analytical tools. The Oxford English Dictionary’s second edition, for instance, involved hundreds of contributors analyzing millions of quotations, a scale of collaboration unimaginable in Johnson’s time. Yet despite these differences in methodology, Johnson’s fundamental insight—that a lexicon should comprehensively document a language with precision and evidence—remains the cornerstone of modern lexicography.

💡 Did You Know?

🎓 Conclusion

The publication of Samuel Johnson’s dictionary on April 19, 1755, represents a pivotal moment in the evolution of the English lexicon and stands as one of the most significant individual intellectual achievements of the 18th century. By creating the first truly comprehensive English dictionary, Johnson not only documented the language but helped shape its future development. As we navigate today’s rapidly evolving linguistic landscape, with new terms constantly emerging from technology, social media, and global cultural exchange, Johnson’s monumental effort reminds us of the enduring importance of systematically documenting and understanding the words we use to communicate and make sense of our world.

📚 Further Reading

• 📘 “The Dictionary Wars: The American Fight over the English Language” by Peter Martin
• 📗 “Defining the World: The Extraordinary Story of Dr. Johnson’s Dictionary” by Henry Hitchings
• 📙 “The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary” by Simon Winchester